Energy storage/es

Un pequeño sistema FV autónomo hipotético
Amarillo - Potencia FV potencial en un día soleado.
Gris - Potencia FV potencial en un día parcialmente nublado.
Azul - Potencia FV potencial en un día lluvioso. El naranja representa las necesidades energéticas de los usuarios tipotéticos. Ninguna de las líneas de producción se alinea con las necesidades energéticas de los usuarios.

Los sistemas FV producen energía cuando brilla el sol, pero su producción varía significativamente según la temporada y si está nublado o lloviendo. Adémas, existe la inevitable realidad de la puesta de sol cada día. La producción variable requiere almacenamiento de energía para proporcionar una fuente de energía y voltaje estables cuando la fuente FV no está produciendo energía para satisfacer la demanda de energía. La forma más común de almacenamiento en aplicaciones autónomos son las baterías. Las baterías recargables se basan en reacciones químicas para liberar energía cuando se necesita, pero pueden funcionar en reversa cuando la batería se carga para almacenar energía. Hay muchos tipos y tamaños diferentes de baterías en el mercado. Este es el caso porque no existe un solo tipo de batería que sea superior en todas las aplicaciones. Cada tipo de batería utiliza diferentes combinaciones de materiales que tienen diferentes ventajas y desventajas. Todos los diseños de baterías inevitablemente deben equilibrar las siguientes características:

• Número de ciclos (vida útil)
• Costo
• Energía específica (capacidad energética relativa al tamaño)
• Potencia específica (capacidad de potencia relativa al tamaño)
• Seguridad para usuarios
• Rendimiento en condiciones variables
• Mantenimiento

Por ejemplo: Una batería puede tener una vida útil prolongada y ser capaz de soportar grandes cargas, pero será grande y pesada o costará demasiado. Una batería puede suministrar mucha energía y ser de tamaño relativamente pequeño, pero no tendrá una vida útil prolongada. Por lo tanto, se debe elegir una batería en función de la aplicación particular. Un tipo de batería será apropiado para una radio portátil y otro tipo será apropiado para almacenamiento en un sistema FV. Los sistemas FV a pequeña escala con baterías generalmente se basan en lead acid batteries, ya que son un buen compromiso entre todos estos diferentes factores.

Cada tipo de batería tiene condiciones específicas de uso que deben seguirse. Es muy importante leer el manual del usuario y la hoja de especificaciones de cualquier batería que se esté considerando para asegurarse de que sea adecuada para el uso previsto. No elegir la batería correcta o no usarla correctamente puede dañar el equipo o causar lesiones.

El sistema de almacenamiento de energía para un sistema fuera de la red debe dimensionarse y seleccionarse en función de la Evaluación de cargas para un sitio en particular; consulte Dimensionamiento y selección del sistema de almacenamiento de energía para obtener más información.

Características de baterías

Las tres características más importantes a la hora de elegir una batería son:

Voltaje

Batteries are rated with a nominal voltage (Vn). This voltage is called a nominal voltage as the voltage of batteries constantly varies depending on if they are being charged/discharged, their state of charge and the cell temperature.

Storage capacity

The energy storage capacity of a battery will be rated in amp-hours (Ah). or watt-hours (Wh). 1 amp-hour is equal to 1 amp of current transferred during the course of an hour, which is the standard rating method used for lead acid batteries. In the PV sector it is becoming more common to rate batteries in Watt-hours because it is easier to understand the total storage capacity of an energy storage system. To be able to compare the storage capacity of a system to the potential loads it is necessary to convert from amp-hours to watt-hours. The formula is simple:

Storage capacity	= ampere-hours (Ah) × nominal voltage (Vn)

Example 1: There is a 12 V 120 Ah battery. What is the capacity of the battery?

Storage capacity = 12 V × 120 Ah

Storage capacity = 1440 Wh

Example 2: There are two batteries connected together that are each 12 V and 60 Ah. What is the capacity of the battery bank?

Storage capacity = 12 V × 60 Ah × 2 batteries

Storage capacity = 1440 Wh

Different sizes and voltage of batteries can be connected together to achieve the same amount of storage capacity.

Cycle life

Cycle life is the number of charge and discharge cycles that an energy storage device can provide before performance decreases to an extent that it cannot perform as required. The cycle life, or longevity, of all batteries depends upon the following factors:

1. Depth of discharge (DoD)
2. Temperature
3. Proper charging
4. Maintenance

Using batteries

The life of a battery is greatly affecting by how it is charged, discharged, maintained and under what conditions it is used.

State of charge (SoC)

The state of charge (SoC) of a battery is the total amount of its storage capacity that remains available for use. It is important for system users to understand how much energy remains for use to avoid damaging the battery by withdrawing too much energy. For example, if 25% of the capacity of a battery has been used, then its state of charge will be 75%. A fully AGM battery will have a voltage of around 12.8 V and an empty battery will have a voltage of around 10.5 V. If a battery is being discharged, its voltage will drop and if it is being charged its voltage will increase. In a PV system, which is constantly being charged and discharged, this can make it difficult to get a proper state of charge measurement from voltage. Nonetheless, many small-scale battery-based systems do not rely on a shunt and users commonly use the voltage of the battery bank as their only guide. To get an accurate measurement of state of charge there are three options:

State of charge vs. depth of discharge for a Trojan lead acid AGM battery .

1. The ideal method to measure the state of charge of a battery is to use a device called a shunt. A shunt is a device that can measure the amount of current flowing in and out of battery to estimate its available capacity.
2. Disconnecting all of the loads and charging sources and then waiting three hours to let the voltage stabilize.
3. The state of charge of a flooded lead acid battery can be taken using a specialized device called a hydrometer that takes a measurement of the electrolyte solution inside the battery. These devices are not available everywhere and if used improperly can be hazardous as the electrolyte solution inside a battery is highly acidic.

Depth of discharge (DoD)

Depth of discharge is the inverse of state of charge - it is the amount of the storage capacity that has been removed. Depth of discharge is important when designing PV systems as it determines the size of the energy storage system and how many cycles it will last for. Lead acid batteries are not tolerant of regular deep discharges - a typical lead acid battery should not be discharged more than 50% regularly as it will greatly shorten its cycle life. Lithium-ion batteries are far more tolerance of regular deep cycling. The actual usable energy in battery bank is calculated as follow:

Usable energy	= storage capacity × depth of discharge

Example 1: You have a battery bank with 1440Wh of capacity, but the system is only designed to be used to a depth of discharge of 40%. How much usable energy is there?

Usable energy = 1440 Wh × .4

Usable energy = 576 Wh

Proper charging

All battery types have a maximum charging current and maximum charging voltage based upon the battery's temperature. The PV source must be designed to supply a charging current that is not below the manufacturer recommended minimum charge rate and that is not above the manufacturer recommended maximum charge rate. A battery must be paired with a Special:MyLanguage/Charge controller that is designed for use with that type of battery. Each individual battery make and model will have its own specific characteristics that will have to be programmed into the charge controller.

Exceeding the maximum charge rate of a battery can lead to irreparable damage or in a worst-case scenario a thermal runaway event that could start a fire. Maximium charge limits should be must be respected.

Proper discharging

All battery types have a maximum continuous discharge current rating that must be respected. The inverter in an off-grid PV system the inverter must be appropriately sized so that this value will not be exceeded. Surge loads and heavy loads that operate only briefly (several minutes) can exceed this value without any issues.

Cell temperature

Regardless of the battery type, heat greatly affects performance and shortens the cycle life of a battery. For lead acid batteries it is estimated that for every 10°C increase in average temperature above 25°C shortens the batteries life by half. This means that operating a lead acid battery for one month at 35°C is equivalent in terms of battery life to operating the battery for two months at 25°C.

Maintenance

Basic personal protective equipment (PPE) for working with batteries.

Each battery type has specific maintenance requirements, and this becomes a major factor when selecting batteries. If a battery bank is not properly maintained it can be quickly destroyed, but maintenance-free batteries typically cost significantly more and may have shorter life spans.

Safety

Batteries often contain extremely hazardous materials. It is important to understand the proper precautions that need to be taken when working any battery and to wear personal protection equipment as necessary. This information should be available in the user manual and specifications sheet.

For electrical safety with batteries - see Electrical safety with batteries

Recycling

As batteries contain hazardous materials they must be disposed of properly. Lead acid batteries can be recycled nearly anywhere in the world and there is often a deposit for their return as they contain valuable materials. Other battery types like lithium ion batteries are more difficult to recycle in remote locations - consult the battery manufacturer for more information.

Notes/references

Hydrowires - Energy Storage Technology and Cost Characterization Report
Isidor Buchman - Batteries in a Portable World
Thomas Reddy - Linden's Handbook of Batteries, 4th Edition